Compatibility of cardiac pacemakers, implantable defibrillators and other types of active implantable medical devices with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and other types of hospital diagnostic equipment has become a major issue. If one proceeds to the websites of the major cardiac pacemaker manufacturers in the United States, which include St. Jude Medical, Medtronic and Boston Scientific (formerly Guidant), one will see that the use of MRI is generally contra-indicated for patients with implanted pacemakers and cardioverter defibrillators. See also recent press announcements of the Medtronic Revo MRI pacemaker which was recently approved by the U.S. FDA. With certain technical limitations as to scan type and location, this is the first pacemaker designed for MRI scanning. See also:    (1) “Safety Aspects of Cardiac Pacemakers in Magnetic Resonance Imaging”, a dissertation submitted to the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich presented by Roger Christoph Luchinger, Zurich 2002;    (2) “1. Dielectric Properties of Biological Tissues: Literature Survey”, by C. Gabriel, S. Gabriel and E. Cortout;    (3) “II. Dielectric Properties of Biological Tissues: Measurements and the Frequency Range 0 Hz to 20 GHz”, by S. Gabriel, R. W. Lau and C. Gabriel;    (4) “III. Dielectric Properties of Biological Tissues: Parametric Models for the Dielectric Spectrum of Tissues”, by S. Gabriel, R. W. Lau and C. Gabriel;    (5) “Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics”, C. A. Balanis, Wiley, 1989;    (6) Systems and Methods for Magnetic-Resonance-Guided Interventional Procedures, Patent Application Publication US 2003/0050557, Susil and Halperin et al., published Mar. 13, 2003;    (7) Multifunctional Interventional Devices for MRI: A Combined Electrophysiology/MRI Catheter, by, Robert C. Susil, Henry R. Halperin, Christopher J. Yeung, Albert C. Lardo and Ergin Atalar, MRI in Medicine, 2002; and    (8) Multifunctional Interventional Devices for Use in MRI, U.S. Pat. No. 7,844,534, Susil et al., issued Nov. 30, 2010.The contents of the foregoing are all incorporated herein by reference.
However, an extensive review of the literature indicates that, despite being contra-indicated, MRI is indeed often used to image patients with pacemaker, neurostimulator and other active implantable medical devices (AIMDs). As such, the safety and feasibility of MRI in patients with cardiac pacemakers is an issue of gaining significance. The effects of MRI on patients' pacemaker systems have only been analyzed retrospectively in some case reports. There are a number of papers that indicate that MRI on new generation pacemakers can be conducted up to 0.5 Tesla (T). MRI is one of medicine's most valuable diagnostic tools. MRI is, of course, extensively used for imaging, but is also used for interventional medicine (surgery). In addition, MRI is used in real time to guide ablation catheters, neurostimulator tips, deep brain probes and the like. An absolute contra-indication for pacemaker or neurostimulator patients means that these patients are excluded from MRI. This is particularly true of scans of the thorax and abdominal areas. Because of MRI's incredible value as a diagnostic tool for imaging organs and other body tissues, many physicians simply take the risk and go ahead and perform MRI on a pacemaker patient. The literature indicates a number of precautions that physicians should take in this case, including limiting the power of the MRI RF pulsed field (Specific Absorption Rate—SAR level), programming the pacemaker to a fixed or asynchronous pacing mode, and then careful reprogramming and evaluation of the pacemaker and patient after the procedure is complete. There have been reports of latent problems with cardiac pacemakers or other AIMDs after an MRI procedure sometimes occurring many days later. Moreover, there are a number of recent papers that indicate that the SAR level is not entirely predictive of the heating that would be found in implanted leads or devices. For example, for magnetic resonance imaging devices operating at the same magnetic field strength and also at the same SAR level, considerable variations have been found relative to heating of implanted leads. It is speculated that SAR level alone is not a good predictor of whether or not an implanted device or its associated lead system will overheat.
There are three types of electromagnetic fields used in an MRI unit. The first type is the main static magnetic field designated Bo which is used to align protons in body tissue. The field strength varies from 0.5 to 3.0 Tesla in most of the currently available MRI units in clinical use. Some of the newer MRI system fields can go as high as 4 to 5 Tesla. At the International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine (ISMRM), which was held on 5-6 Nov. 2005, it was reported that certain research systems are going up as high as 11.7 Tesla and will be ready sometime in 2010. This is over 100,000 times the magnetic field strength of the earth. A static magnetic field can induce powerful mechanical forces and torque on any magnetic materials implanted within the patient. This would include certain components within the cardiac pacemaker itself and/or lead systems. It is not likely (other than sudden system shut down) that the static MRI magnetic field can induce currents into the pacemaker lead system and hence into the pacemaker itself. It is a basic principle of physics that a magnetic field must either be time-varying as it cuts across the conductor, or the conductor itself must move within a specifically varying magnetic field for currents to be induced.
The second type of field produced by magnetic resonance imaging is the pulsed RF field which is generated by the body coil or head coil. This is used to change the energy state of the protons and elicit MRI signals from tissue. The RF field is homogeneous in the central region and has two main components: (1) the electric field is circularly polarized in the actual plane; and (2) the H field, sometimes generally referred to as the net magnetic field in matter, is related to the electric field by Maxwell's equations and is relatively uniform. In general, the RF field is switched on and off during measurements and usually has a frequency of about 21 MHz to about 500 MHz depending upon the static magnetic field strength. The frequency of the RF pulse for hydrogen scans varies by the Lamour equation with the field strength of the main static field where: RF PULSED FREQUENCY in MHz=(42.56) (STATIC FIELD STRENGTH IN TESLA). There are also phosphorous and other types of scanners wherein the Lamour equation would be different. The present invention applies to all such scanners.
The third type of electromagnetic field is the time-varying magnetic gradient fields designated BX, BY, BZ, which are used for spatial localization. These change their strength along different orientations and operating frequencies on the order of 2-5 kHz. The vectors of the magnetic field gradients in the X, Y and Z directions are produced by three sets of orthogonally positioned coils and are switched on only during the measurements. In some cases, the gradient field has been shown to elevate natural heart rhythms (heart beat). This is not completely understood, but it is a repeatable phenomenon. The gradient field is not considered by many researchers to create any other adverse effects.
It is instructive to note how voltages and electro-magnetic interference (EMI) are induced into an implanted lead system. At very low frequency (VLF), voltages are induced at the input to the cardiac pacemaker as currents circulate throughout the patient's body and create voltage drops. Because of the vector displacement between the pacemaker housing and, for example, the tip electrode, voltage drop across the resistance of body tissues may be sensed due to Ohms Law and the circulating current of the RF signal. At higher frequencies, the implanted lead systems actually act as antennas where voltages (EMFs) are induced along their length. These antennas are not very efficient due to the damping effects of body tissue; however, this can often be offset by extremely high-power fields (such as MRI pulsed fields) and/or body resonances. At very high frequencies (such as cellular telephone frequencies), EMI signals are induced only into the first area of the leadwire system (for example, at the header block of a cardiac pacemaker). This has to do with the wavelength of the signals involved and where they couple efficiently into the system.
Magnetic field coupling into an implanted lead system is based on loop areas. For example, in a cardiac pacemaker unipolar lead, there is a loop formed by the lead as it comes from the cardiac pacemaker housing to its distal tip electrode, for example, located in the right ventricle. The return path is through body fluid and tissue generally straight from the tip electrode in the right ventricle back up to the pacemaker case or housing. This forms an enclosed area which can be measured from patient X-rays in square centimeters. The average loop area is 200 to 225 square centimeters. This is an average and is subject to great statistical variation. For example, in a large adult patient with an abdominal pacemaker implant, the implanted loop area is much larger (around 400 square centimeters).
Relating now to the specific case of MRI, the magnetic gradient fields would be induced through enclosed loop areas. However, the pulsed RF fields, which are generated by the body coil, would be primarily induced into the lead system by antenna action. Subjected to RF frequencies, the lead itself can exhibit complex transmission line behavior.
At the frequencies of interest in MRI, RF energy can be absorbed and converted to heat. The power deposited by RF pulses during MRI is complex and is dependent upon the power (Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) Level) and duration of the RF pulse, the transmitted frequency, the number of RF pulses applied per unit time, and the type of configuration of the RF transmitter coil used. The amount of heating also depends upon the volume of tissue imaged, the electrical resistivity of tissue and the configuration of the anatomical region imaged. There are also a number of other variables that depend on the placement in the human body of the AIMD and the length and trajectory of its associated lead(s). For example, it will make a difference how much EMF is induced into a pacemaker lead system as to whether it is a left or right pectoral implant. In addition, the routing of the lead and the lead length are also very critical as to the amount of induced current and heating that would occur. Also, distal tip design is very important as it can heat up due to MRI RF induced energy.
The cause of heating in an MRI environment is twofold: (a) RF field coupling to the lead can occur which induces significant local heating; and (b) currents induced between the distal tip and tissue during MRI RF pulse transmission sequences can cause local Ohms Law (resistive) heating in tissue next to the distal tip electrode of the implanted lead. The RF field of an MRI scanner can produce enough energy to induce RF voltages in an implanted lead and resulting currents sufficient to damage some of the adjacent myocardial tissue. Tissue ablation (destruction resulting in scars) has also been observed. The effects of this heating are not readily detectable by monitoring during the MRI. Indications that heating has occurred would include an increase in pacing threshold, venous ablation, Larynx or esophageal ablation, myocardial perforation and lead penetration, or even arrhythmias caused by scar tissue. Such long-term heating effects of MRI have not been well studied yet for all types of AIMD lead geometries. There can also be localized heating problems associated with various types of electrodes in addition to tip electrodes. This includes ring electrodes or pad electrodes. Ring electrodes are commonly used with a wide variety of implanted devices including cardiac pacemakers, and neurostimulators, and the like. Pad electrodes are very common in neurostimulator applications. For example, spinal cord stimulators or deep brain stimulators can include at least ten pad electrodes to make contact with nerve tissue. A good example of this also occurs in a cochlear implant. In a typical cochlear implant there would be sixteen pad electrodes placed up into the cochlea. Several of these pad electrodes make contact with auditory nerves.
Although there are a number of studies that have shown that MRI patients with active implantable medical devices, such as cardiac pacemakers, can be at risk for potential hazardous effects, there are a number of reports in the literature that MRI can be safe for imaging of pacemaker patients when a number of precautions are taken (only when an MRI is thought to be an absolute diagnostic necessity). While these anecdotal reports are of interest, they are certainly not scientifically convincing that all MRI can be safe. For example, just variations in the pacemaker lead length and implant trajectory can significantly affect how much heat is generated. A paper entitled, HEATING AROUND INTRAVASCULAR GUIDEWIRES BY RESONATING RF WAVES by Konings, et al., journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Issue 12:79-85 (2000), does an excellent job of explaining how the RF fields from MRI scanners can couple into implanted leads. The paper includes both a theoretical approach and actual temperature measurements. In a worst-case, they measured temperature rises of up to 74 degrees C. after 30 seconds of scanning exposure. The contents of this paper are incorporated herein by reference.
The effect of an MRI system on the function of pacemakers, ICDs, neurostimulators and the like, depends on various factors, including the strength of the static magnetic field, the pulse sequence, the strength of RF field, the anatomic region being imaged, and many other factors. Further complicating this is the fact that each patient's condition and physiology is different, and each lead implant has a different length and/or implant trajectory in body tissues. Most experts still conclude that MRI for the pacemaker patient should not be considered safe.
It is well known that many of the undesirable effects in an implanted lead system from MRI and other medical diagnostic procedures are related to undesirable induced EMFs in the lead system and/or RF currents in its distal tip (or ring) electrodes. This can lead to overheating of body tissue at or adjacent to the distal tip.
Distal tip electrodes can be unipolar, bipolar and the like. It is very important that excessive current not flow at the interface between the lead distal tip electrode and body tissue. In a typical cardiac pacemaker, for example, the distal tip electrode can be passive or of a screw-in helix type as will be more fully described. In any event, it is very important that excessive RF current not flow at this junction between the distal tip electrode and for example, myocardial or nerve tissue. Excessive current at the distal electrode to tissue interface can cause excessive heating to the point where tissue ablation or even perforation can occur. This can be life threatening for cardiac patients. For neurostimulator patients, such as deep brain stimulator patients, thermal injury can cause coma, permanent disability or even be life threatening. Similar issues exist for spinal cord stimulator patients, cochlear implant patients and the like.
Interestingly, the inventors performed an experiment in an MRI scanner with a human body gel-filled phantom. In the phantom, placed in an anatomic position, was an operating pacemaker and a lead. This was during evaluation of the efficacy of bandstop filters at or near the distal tip electrode for preventing the distal tip electrode from overheating. Bandstop filters for this purpose are more thoroughly described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,363,090, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. During the experiments, there was a control lead that had no bandstop filter. During a particularly RF intense scanning sequence, Luxtron probes measured a distal helix tip electrode temperature rise of 30 degrees C. Of course, the 30 degrees C. temperature rise in a patient, would be very alarming as it could lead to pacing capture threshold changes or even complete loss capture due to scar tissue formation. An identical lead with the bandstop filter in place only had a temperature rise of 3 degrees C. This was a remarkable validation of the efficacy of bandstop filters for implantable electrodes. However, something very interesting happened when we disconnected the pacemaker. We disconnected the pacemaker and put a silicone lead cap over the proximal end of the lead. Again, we put the gel phantom back inside the MR scanner and this time we measured an 11-degree C. temperature rise on the lead with the bandstop filter. This was proof positive that the housing of the AIMD acts as part of the system. The prior art feedthrough capacitor created a fairly low impedance at the input to the pacemaker and thereby drew RF energy out of the lead and diverted it to the housing of the pacemaker. It has recently been discovered that the impedance, and in particular, the ESR of these capacitors, is very important so that maximal energy can be pulled from the lead and diverted to the pacemaker housing while at the same time, not unduly overheating the feedthrough capacitor.
Accordingly, there is a need for novel low ESR diverting capacitors and circuits which are frequency selective and are constructed of passive components for implantable leads and/or leadwires. Further, there is a need for very low ESR diverter element capacitor(s) which are designed to decouple a maximum amount of induced RF energy from an implanted lead to an AIMD housing while at the same time not overheat. The present invention fulfills these needs and provides other related advantages.